The Agronomical Revolutions

Rene J. Herrera , Ralph Garcia-Bertrand , in Ancestral Dna, Human being Origins, and Migrations, 2018

Animal Domestication

Fauna domestication has followed a like trajectory to found domestication. Humans intervened in the natural life cycle of selected animals by managing their living conditions, nutrient supply, and reproduction. 53 Evidence indicates that most animal domestication originated in the Holocene period. 46 Scientists believe that animal domestication, similar to plant cultivation, was fabricated possible by warmer, more than hospitable climates exhibiting more reliable seasonal patterns. Although domestication may have spread due to contact with major domestication sites, it is most likely that the animal husbandry efforts were independent. Animal domestication appears to have originated in geographically singled-out areas and spread outward to different communities. 53

The ideal candidate for domestication was an animate being that provided an important food source, did not have rapid flight abilities, and was social and able to tolerate convenance and feeding restrictions. 46 Iii types of domesticates can be identified: (1) commensals, adjusted for companionship (dogs, cats, guinea pigs); (2) prey for nutrient (cows, sheep, pigs, goats, ducks, chickens); and (3) those reared for piece of work and nonfood resources such as wool, leather, and transportation (horses, camels, donkeys, oxen, llamas). 54

The earliest evidence of fauna domestication is that of dogs. The actual means of domestication and the initial site and time of domestication remain a mystery. Initial investigations placed canis familiaris domestication in the Centre Due east. Evidence for this came from a jawbone found in a cave in Republic of iraq dated to about 12 kya. Afterwards, genome studies of wolves and domesticated dogs led by Wayne and Novembre adamant that dogs were domesticated from now extinct wolves approximately 11–16   kya, predating agriculture. 55,56 More than contempo mitochondrial Deoxyribonucleic acid show suggests domestication in Europe, 57,58 whereas genomic Deoxyribonucleic acid show from Chinese investigators suggests that dogs were domesticated 33   kya in Southeast Asia and then migrated into the Centre East 15   kya, reaching Europe around 10   kya. 59 The high levels of genetic variety found in dogs from Southeast Asia supports the idea that they may be the most archaic forms. In addition, archeological support for the Chinese genetic studies comes from two domestic dog skulls dated to 33   kya that were discovered in the Altai Mountains of Siberia and in Kingdom of belgium. At that place are several possibilities explaining the dissimilar data and interpretation of where and when dogs were domesticated. I is that humans traveled great distances 33   kya and dogs followed seeking food, and they were somewhen domesticated, or that domestication occurred repeatedly in different locations at different times.

All genomic data support the notion that dogs are descended from relatives of the gray wolf (Canis lupus). Genetic studies suggest that modern domesticated dogs are the effect of admixture betwixt C. lupus and extinct species of the genus Canis. Genetic evidence farther suggests that none of the modern gray wolves are those that were first domesticated. 56,58,59 Interestingly, dogs are the only big carnivores ever to take been domesticated. Dogs may have been domesticated by hunter-gatherers for aid during hunting. 2 The selective breeding that shows an astonishing diverseness of shapes, sizes, and abilities (herding, swimming, hunting, assailment, etc.) occurred inside the concluding several hundred years. 56

Aside from the domestication of dogs, other major fauna husbandry occurred in the Centre Eastward. Domestication of the goat, hog, and sheep kickoff transpired in the Fertile Crescent approximately 11   kya possibly because of unpredictable availability of wild game from overhunting and/or changing ecological conditions in the region. Goats, i of the offset beast domesticates of this area, originated from the wild Capra aegagrus (Fig. 13.10). Pigs were initially domesticated from the wild boar (Sus scrofa) and then domesticated in Europe and Asia around ix   kya (Fig. thirteen.11). Every bit with many fauna species the exact wild ancestors and the methods of domestication of sheep is uncertain. Almost investigators believe sheep were initially domesticated from the wild mouflon (Ovis orientalis) in Mesopotamia betwixt eleven and ix   kya (Fig. 13.12). The early domestics were raised for milk, meat, and skins for clothing, with wooly sheep developed around 6   kya in Iran. 53,60

Figure 13.10. Wild caprine animal Capra aegagrus, idea to be the ancestor of domesticated goats.

 From https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Carmel_Hai-Bar_-_Capra_aegagrus_creticus_(3).JPG.

Figure 13.eleven. The wild boar or Eurasian wild sus scrofa (Sus scrofa) originated in Southeast Asia (Indonesia and the Philippines) during the Pleistocene. From there information technology spread into Eurasia and Africa. It is thought to exist the antecedent of most modern-24-hour interval pig breeds.

 From https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/20160208054949%21Wildschein%2C_Nähe_Pulverstampftor_%28cropped%29.jpg.

Figure 13.12. Male person Cyprus mouflon (Ovis orientalis) with ewes.

 From https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financialcrisis/9312154/Italian-austerity-forces-region-to-sell-its-rare-mouflon-sheep.html.

Cattle domestication occurred multiple times and in various places but first occurred approximately 500   years after the Fertile Crescent witnessed its beginning surge of major animal domestication. 61 Cattle were domesticated at least twice with domestication first seen in Turkey around x.v   kya from wild aurochs (Bos primigenius), then once again approximately seven   kya, in the Indus Valley. Cattle from Turkey gave rise to the taurine line (European cattle) and those from the Indus Valley gave rising to the indicine line (humped cattle); both are descendants of wild aurochs. Scientists accept concluded that merchandise likely spread the domesticated of cattle globally. 61–63 Cattle are useful domesticates for food, milk, and their secondary products including habiliment and tools from hides and bones (Fig. 13.13).

Figure 13.thirteen. Bos primigenius taurus originally from Turkey gave ascension to the taurine line of cattle referred to as mod-day European cattle.

 From http://www.naturephoto-cz.com/photos/andera/highland-cattle-xxx2010.jpg.

Domestication of horses and camels occurred 4–6   kya. 6 Horses provide food, facilitate transportation, and enhance warfare capabilities. Genomic studies suggest that the process of domestication involved closely related male animals mating with a variety of females. This evidence comes from genome studies showing in that location is limited sequence diversity in horse Y chromosomes (passed on from males), which contrasts with a high diversity of mitochondrial Deoxyribonucleic acid (passed on by females). 64 Camels provided transportation, milk, meat, and pilus for habiliment. Camels are classified as Old and New Globe camelids. The Old World camelids are those almost familiar to people as the one-humped camel (dromedary) that is native to the Middle Due east and the two-humped camel (Bactrian) that is native to Central Asia. New World camelids are the llama, alpaca, and guanaco of Southward America. Dromedaries may have been the first to be domesticated in Arabia around 5   kya. 65

Chickens are one of the most mutual domesticated animals and a worldwide food source making up a variety of cuisines, where they are primarily used as a source of meat and eggs. Although it is a major food source today, many archeologists think that is was originally used for erect fighting and not as a nutrient source. 66 The use for cock fighting was most likely a major reason for its spread and only later was it recognized as a nutrient source. The domestication of the chicken dates back to 4–8   kya in Southeast Asia and near likely resulted from the wild red jungle fowl Gallus gallus. A lack of information makes information technology hard to pinpoint the exact timing, just information technology is clear that from Southeast Asia the bird spread into Republic of india where a number of varieties were adult and exported. The export of chickens from India is thought to have given ascension to the mod-day chickens of Europe, the Middle East, and the Americas. 67

Animal domestication also helped humans through the use of manure every bit fertilizer and fuel for fires. 6 Until the Industrial Revolution and the invention of the railroads, large mammals served as the main manner of transportation. Before brute domestication, humans transported appurtenances and people on their own backs. Animals such equally donkeys, horses, and llamas made it possible to carry heavy goods over longer distances with minimal resources. six

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Horse Meat

M.D. Pawshe , ... A.Y. Pundkar , in Encyclopedia of Nutrient and Health, 2016

Abstruse

Domestication of horses started effectually 4000 BC. Horses were historically used for agricultural, ship, and warfare requirements. Many products are derived from horses, including horse meat (HM), milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of meaning mares. HM has been historically obtained from animals that were slaughtered at the end of their working life. HM is considered as more dietetic among all the cherry-red meats because of its lower fat content. The ratio of N−   6/N−   3 fatty acids is more favorable in HM than other ruminant species. In some countries, HM is considered equally an alternative to beefiness and is considered more digestible than sheep and goat meats.

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Multi-omics approaches for strategic improvement of stress tolerance in underutilized crop species: A climate change perspective

Mehanathan Muthamilarasan , ... Manoj Prasad , in Advances in Genetics, 2019

1.three Importance of NUCS in food and nutrition security

Domestication was the major driving factor backside the choice and comeback of staple crops, and it is recorded that the first domestication event occurred around viii to ten million years ago ( Harlan, 1992). The minor underutilized crops had not undergone extensive domestication, and equally mentioned above, their tillage was confined to certain regions of the world. However, these species possess several advantages over the major crops. Millets are greatly prized for their various nutritional benefits, and in many cases, millets are considered superior to other saccharide sources like wheat and rice (Hegde, Rajasekaran, & Chandra, 2005). Autonomously from being a source of full general amino acids, millets also provide essential amino acids which the human body cannot synthesize (Muthamilarasan, Dhaka, Yadav, & Prasad, 2016). Grains of millets contain big amounts of storage proteins (seed storage proteins, SSPs) constituted primarily of prolamins and have excellent nutritional value for humans. Of note, the overall protein content of millets is substantially higher than other major cereals (Hulse, Laing, & Pearson, 1980; Saleh, Zhang, Chen, & Shen, 2013). Among millets, foxtail millet (cultivar "RAU-8") has been reported to possess the maximum amount of seed proteins (13%; Chandel, Meena, Dubey, & Kumar, 2014), which is three- to fivefold higher than rice, wheat, maize and sorghum (Muthamilarasan et al., 2016).

Starch serves equally the main dietary component of carbohydrates for humans and is classified into three types based on their digestibility—rapidly digestible starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS) (Englyst, Kingman, & Cummings, 1992). Major cereals are predominantly RDS-rich resulting in the firsthand release of glucose upon digestion that causes rapid summit of blood glucose levels. Conversely, millets are rich in SDS and RS, which have significantly slower digestibility since starch molecules are wrapped in fiber beat that is physically inaccessible to digestive enzymes (Higgins, 2004). Upon ingestion, SDS and RS escape enzymatic digestion in the stomach, and and so moved to the large intestine, where these starches are digested past the intestinal microflora. This results in the slow and progressive release of glucose into the bloodstream (Muthamilarasan et al., 2016). Further, millets have positive furnishings in reducing plasma cholesterol and triglyceride contents, improving whole-body insulin sensitivity, augmenting satiety and reducing fat storage (Higgins, 2004). Recently, Bangoura et al. (2012) reported that white and yellowish foxtail millet varieties contain 13.35% and 14.56% RS, respectively, suggesting that they tin can act as effective dietary supplements to command glucose levels in diabetics, and in reducing plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Thus, the reduced postprandial glycemic and insulinemic responses of millets prove their potential in circumventing type-2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases.

In addition to higher protein and RS content, millets are excellent sources of minerals including iron, calcium, zinc, magnesium, phosphorous and potassium. A preliminary assay of mineral elements in ~   100 foxtail millet accessions showed that eight accessions possess significantly higher concentrations of major mineral elements (Chiliad, Ni, Ca, B, Mg, P, S, Zn, Mg and Fe), while private trace elemental concentration is more often than not highly variable across accessions (Fig. i) (Muthamilarasan et al., 2016). Comparison of mineral content in the grains of millets with rice, wheat and sorghum highlighted that foxtail millet is rich in phosphorous, magnesium, sulfur, zinc and nickel; whereas, little millet has a college amount of atomic number 26 content. Further, the grains of finger millet is institute to exist rich in calcium and manganese. Altogether, the written report demonstrated that millets possess two- to three-fold higher levels of mineral elements than the major cereals, which substantiate the potential of millets in effectively circumventing malnutrition and undernutrition.

Fig. 1

Fig. 1. Summary of mean normalized concentrations (ppm) of major and trace mineral elements from millets and cereals analyzed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES).

In the case of legumes, grass pea is particularly rich in protein. The poly peptide content in seeds and other vegetative parts (26.3–34.iii% and 13.eight–xx.1%, respectively) is higher than other legumes including Pisum sativum (garden pea), Vicia faba (broad bean) and Medicago sativa (alfalfa) (Yang & Zhang, 2005). In improver, the poly peptide content of grass pea majorly comprises 17 major amino acids (particularly, lysine), which is the maximum amongst other legumes (Hanbury, White, Mullan, & Siddique, 2000). Further, grass pea is an indispensable office of sustainable agriculture every bit it adds up to 125   kg/ha nitrogen to the soil through nodulation with Rhizobium leguminosarum (IAEA, 1998). This enhances the nitrogen availability in the soil for non-legume crops. Similarly, sweet potato contains significant concentrations of β-carotene, a forerunner for vitamin A biosynthesis (Laurie & Van Heerden, 2012), whereas taro is a rich source of carbohydrate, vitamins A and C, mineral nutrients and poly peptide (Mabhaudhi, Modi, & Beletse, 2014). Altogether, information technology is realized that NUCS are nutritionally rich as compared to regular crops which demonstrate the potential of NUCS in preventing food and nutrition insecurity.

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Integrating genomics and genetics to accelerate development of drought and salinity tolerant crops

Zvi Peleg , ... Eduardo Blumwald , in Plant Biotechnology and Agriculture, 2012

Germplasm resources for drought and salinity tolerance

Domestication of wild plants and modernistic establish convenance imposed a genetic bottleneck on crop plants that has severely eroded the allelic variations of genes originally found in the wild species ( Tanksley and McCouch, 1997). Mod crop cultivars are the product of intensive selection to facilitate higher yields under irrigated environments. This choice has narrowed the genetic variability for abiotic stress resistance, making them relatively sensitive to stress. Natural biodiversity is an underexploited sustainable resource that tin can enrich the genetic ground of cultivated plants with novel alleles that ameliorate productivity and accommodation (McCouch, 2004; Gur and Zamir, 2004). For case, wild emmer wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccoides), the direct progenitor of domesticated wheat, was found to harbor a rich allelic repertoire for diverse morphophysiological traits conferring drought and salinity tolerance (Nevo et al., 1992; Peleg et al., 2005, 2008). As well, wild species of Oryza also showed potential to meliorate drought tolerance related traits (maintenance of leaf elongation and stomatal conductance under stress, high levels of membrane stability) in rice (Liu et al., 2004). The wild relative of tomato (Solanum pennellii) and bean (Phaseolus ssp.) were reported to be more resistant to salinity than modern cultivars (Dehan and Tal, 1978; Bayuelo-Jimenez et al., 2002). These studies, and others, highlighted the potential for stress tolerance improvement past introducing novel alleles from wild related species and landraces. A major challenge for convenance is the rapid introgression of desired traits found in landraces and wild relatives, with a minimal drag, to enrich the cultivated gene pools. Notwithstanding, the traditional introgression of novel alleles from wild relatives via conventional breeding is a tedious and tedious process. The adoption of new genomics tools will accelerate and improve the introgression of genes into crop plants, and can foreclose the elevate of undesirable traits (e.g., seed dispersal, flowering time, summit, etc.) from the wild. Furthermore, genetic applied science approaches can assistance overcome species barriers and extend the search beyond the realm of sexually compatible species.

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Genes and Evolution

50.-F. Li , One thousand.Thou. Olsen , in Current Topics in Developmental Biological science, 2016

Abstract

Crop domestication provides a useful model organization to characterize the molecular and developmental bases of morphological variation in plants. Amongst the nearly universal changes resulting from choice during ingather domestication is the loss of seed and fruit dispersal mechanisms, which greatly facilitates harvesting efficiency. In this review, we consider the molecular genetic and developmental bases of the loss of seed shattering and fruit dispersal in six major crop plant families, iii of which are primarily associated with seed crops (Poaceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae) and iii of which are associated with fleshy-fruited crops (Solanaceae, Rosaceae, Rutaceae). Nosotros find that the developmental ground of the loss of seed/fruit dispersal is conserved in a number of independently domesticated crops, indicating the widespread occurrence of developmentally convergent evolution in response to homo selection. With regard to the molecular genetic approaches used to characterize the basis of this trait, traditional biparental quantitative trait loci mapping remains the nigh usually used strategy; all the same, contempo advances in next-generation sequencing technologies are now providing new avenues to map and characterize loss of shattering/dispersal alleles. We conceptualize that continued awarding of these approaches, together with candidate gene analyses informed by known shattering candidate genes from other crops, will atomic number 82 to a rapid expansion of our understanding of this critical domestication trait.

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Pathogens of Autotrophs

Lynne Boddy , in The Fungi (Tertiary Edition), 2016

Development of Affliction in Natural Ecosystems and Crops

Domestication of crop plants started 10,000–12,000 years BP in the Fertile Crescent in the Middle Eastward, and is the origin of many of our currently almost important ingather species. The development of new agronomical practices and institute convenance resulted in significant changes to plant populations, and the simultaneous emergence of new pathogens. Genetic mechanisms backside evolution of new fungal species are reviewed in Chapter 4, and specific examples of evolutionary mechanisms resulting in emergence of new strains/species of plant pathogenic fungi are presented in the following section. In current, modern agro-ecosystems, populations of fungal pathogens are ofttimes challenged by new institute genes for resistance, fungicides, and a range of management practices aimed at reducing infection of crop plants. Genotypes that permit fungi to overcome these will increase rapidly and spread through the population. Spread from one found to another is oft rapid as plants are grown at very high density.

Man's modern cultivation practices leave us wide open up to crop loss on a massive scale. Almost crops have limited genetic diversity and are grown in vast monocultures. Since the nineteenth century plants have been bred for desired characteristics such as large yield and resistance to pathogens. Germplasm is shared worldwide, so several resistance genes are now used globally. But a unmarried gene mutation may cause a pathogen to become virulent, and spread worldwide is and then only a thing of time. In the tropics, for example, banana (Musa spp.) and coffee (Coffea spp.) are planted as single clones and are, respectively, prone to blackness Sigatoka disease (Figure viii.iv inset) caused by Mycosphaerella fijiensis, and foliage rust. When a pathogen infects a crop with petty or no genetic multifariousness, spread throughout the crop is oftentimes devastating. Monocultures inevitably pb to loftier disease incidence because of high rates of host–pathogen encounter, and affliction is positively density dependent. Competition tin stress plants and reduce their resistance to infection.

Though the majority of research attempt has focussed on crops of economic importance, pathogens also bear upon individual plants in nature. However, the spatial and temporal scales at which plant–pathogen interactions occur is very different, because of the spatially and genetically heterogeneous nature of natural populations. Fungal pathogens cause death and reduced fitness of individual plants (Table 8.8), which can result in declines of populations of some host species and shifts in plant community composition. These effects tin help maintain plant species diversity and genetic diversity, and touch plant customs succession. Establish population dynamics are affected directly as a result of pathogen effects on survival, growth, and fecundity. Plants killed by pathogens before reproduction occurs do not contribute to the next generation, and since disease affects growth, this influences fecundity, and decreases contribution to the next generation. Competition between plants can be affected by differential susceptibility to pathogens. For instance, infection of groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) with the rust Puccinia lagenophorae reduces its growth and competitiveness confronting lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and petty spurge (Euphorbia peplus). Succession of plant communities on sand dunes in Europe is influenced by pathogens; Marram grass (Ammophila arenaria), which dominates wind-blown coastal foredunes, is debilitated by pathogenic soil fungi and nematodes, and is replaced by the resistant fescue grass (Festuca rubra), which dominates stabilised dunes. The root rotter of trees, Phellinus weirii, drives wood structure and succession in conifer forests of the Western USA; Phellinus weirii removes overstory copse of the extremely susceptible Douglas fir (Pseutodtsuga menziesii) and mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), resistant plants taking their place.

Table 8.8. Examples of Direct Effects of Fungal Diseases on Individual Plants in Nature

Plant phase Effects on
Survival Growth Fecundity
Seed decay Rates of disease related death are high, e.grand. in the tropics ranging from ten% in the invasive Mimosa pigra in Australia to 47% in pioneer trees in Panama. In Wyoming shrub-steppe, ranging from 0–90% mortality of v plant species NA NA
Bulb diseases Rates of death due to damping-off affliction are high. In Barro Colarado Island, Panama, it was the primary crusade of death of 80% of constitute species tested killing 74% of a parent tree's seedlings ? NA
Foliar diseases Plants are sometimes killed, especially if seedlings Foliar diseases reduce leaf area, hence photosynthetic activity and growth. Small plants are competitively disadvantaged. In Mexican tropical rain wood, hateful leaf area damage was <   ane% and always <   20%. Withal, in Costa Rica, growth of the tree Erythrochiton gymnanthus, infected by the petiole pathogen Phylloporia chrysita, was reduced by 52% Reproduction can exist reduced because of reduced growth
Systemic infections Some fungi and oomycetes tin can have major effects. The systemic smut Urocystis trientalis acquired 50% mortality of Trientalis europaea (Primulaceae). The oomycetes Albugo candida and Peronospora parasitica caused death of up to 88% of shepherd'southward pocketbook, Capsella bursa-pastoris, seedlings ? ?
Cankers, wilts, and dieback There have been several widespread, dramatic epidemics resulting in rapid decease of trees when cankers girdle stems or block vascular transport causing wilts. These include: Ophiostoma ulmi and O. novo-ulmi on elms (p. 274); chestnut blight caused by Cryphonectria parasitica; sudden oak death acquired by the oomycete Phytophthora ramorum With some canker diseases, if cankers remain pocket-sized and localised, and then death may not ensue, simply growth will exist impaired ?
Root diseases and barrel rots In native North American conifer forests, the basidiomycetes Heterobasidion annosum (pp. 276–277) and Phellinus weirii cause high mortality. Death of large dominant trees alters forest structure Root rots exercise not ever cause death of whole trees, simply growth and reproduction can exist dramtically reduced. The basidiomycete Armillaria ostoyae reduced Douglas fir torso radial increase by upwards to 60%. H. annosum reduced Pinus taeda trunk radial increment by 36% ?
Floral infections NA NA Assault of flowers and developing fruits tin can considerably reduce fecundity. Exobasidium vaccinii acquired a 50% reduction in flowers of Rhododendron calendulaceum in the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern U.s.a.. Anther smut of Silene spp., vectored by pollinators, and caused by Microbotryum violaceum, replaces stamens and staminoids with spore-bearing structures, and hence has a major effect on plant reproductive capacity

NA – non applicable; ? – effects are likely but examples are not available.

Data from Gilbert (2002).

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Fire: A Socioecological and Historical Survey☆

J. Goudsblom , in Reference Module in Globe Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2013

Regimes

The domestication of fire meant that people tamed a stiff and potentially subversive natural force and made it into a regularly bachelor source of energy. In so doing they initiated changes in the natural environment, in their social arrangements, and in their personal lives. These three aspects (ecological, sociological, and psychological) are all part of the irresolute human being relationship with fire.

In its ecological aspects, the domestication of fire affected the relations between humans and the nonhuman world and so deeply that nosotros may call information technology the first dandy ecological transformation brought well-nigh by humans, which was followed much later past the second and third of such transformations, generally known equally the agricultural and industrial revolutions and better characterized by the long-term processes of agrarianization and industrialization.

Each of the three transformations spelled the formation of a new socioecological government: the burn regime, the agrestal regime, and the industrial regime, marked by, respectively, the utilization of burn and elementary tools, the rise and spread of agriculture and animal husbandry, and the ascension and spread of large-scale mod industry. The afterwards regimes take not fabricated the before regimes obsolete; rather, they accept captivated them and, in then doing, transformed them. Each new regime brought an expansion of the anthroposphere within the biosphere.

Defining the three regimes jointly in similar terms is helpful in order to better sympathise each of them separately also as in their interrelations. A mutual conceptual model invites and facilitates comparison. The comparing allows u.s. to explain the sequence in the emergence of the regimes and to perceive not simply their similarities and differences but also their interlocking.

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Taxonomy and History

Stacy Pritt , in The Laboratory Rabbit, Guinea Pig, Hamster, and Other Rodents, 2012

Domestication

The domestication of guinea pigs occurred thousands of years ago in the Andes mountain regions of South America, most likely Peru, and since that time the republic of guinea pig continues to be an important part of native civilisation life ( Caras, 1996; Morales, 1995). Domestication efforts resulted in a new species, Cavia porcellus, which is closely related to several wild species (Caras, 1996).

Guinea pigs are used as food (called "cuy" in native languages, which also refers to the living animal) as well equally in some healing and other rituals in the Andes by indigenous peoples (Morales, 1995). Their manure can be successfully used as fertilizer (Pritt, 1998). Some not-profit groups even provide small herds of guinea pigs to minor villages to enable them to build sustainable agricultural programs to bring a expert source of a high-protein, low-fat meat to the villagers' diets.

Cavia porcellus is closely related to several other caviomorph species such as C. aperea (the smallest cavy similar rodent), C. cutleri, C. fulgida, and C. tschudii (Clutton-Brock and Wilson, 2002; Morales, 1995; Wagner, 1976). Cavies from these related species, but not C. porcellus, withal exist in the wild in areas of Argentina, Uruguay, Bolivia, Peru, and Brazil (Clutton-Brock and Wilson, 2002; Morales, 1995; Wagner; 1976; Weir, 1970). Wild guinea pigs live in open grasslands or marshy areas in minor groups feeding on fresh fruits and resident vegetation (Clutton-Brock and Wilson, 2002; Cooper and Schiller, 1975; Wagner, 1976; Weir, 1970). These republic of guinea grunter groups are typically formed around harems, like to convenance schemes utilized in modern-day breeding operations for research, and seek out burrows created by other animals (Cooper and Schiller, 1975). All republic of guinea pigs are unable to climb and are "strictly terrestrial", every bit well as crepuscular, thus they avert bright sunlight and darkness (Cooper and Schiller, 1975).

Through domestication, guinea pigs became a staple agricultural animal in South America and were used as food along with llamas, shellfish, and fish (Diamond, 2005; Morales, 1995). As well llamas and alpacas, guinea pigs were the but other animal species domesticated in South America, and the sole animal species domesticated in North, Central, and Southward America for food (Caras, 1996; Diamond, 2005; Dunlop, 1996). Representation of guinea pigs in ancient art is seen as early every bit 1400   AD, signifying the importance of the species to native peoples (Morales, 1995).

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Diversity in Barley

Kazuhiro Sato , ... Helmut Knüpffer , in Developments in Plant Genetics and Breeding, 2003

Barley as a model crop for genetic inquiry

The domestication of barley and wheat occurred simultaneously in the same area. Migration of the two crops and their subsequent adaptation to new areas followed similar routes. Apart from the polyploid system in wheat, several prerequisites for convenance strategies are thus rather similar in the two crops, such every bit, for example, diversity for stress tolerances. Compared to wheat, barley has a corking advantage due to its diploid level of ploidy. It is piece of cake to produce mutants and to behave out genetic assay. The large chromosomal syntenies make barley an ideal model crop for the whole tribe, Triticeae.

The bully interest in barley has promoted the research and screening of mutants, with, at nowadays, more than ten,000 documented mutants (Chapter 5). Molecular genetics using mutants produces a meaning impact also on research into Arabidopsis (Kalantidis et al., 2000) but in that location are more well characterised mutants in barley than in Arabidopsis. In this sense, crops are more suitable for mutation research than other species. The results obtained in one ingather species tin can also prove informative for other species, making convenance strategies based on the genome analysis more efficient. If the species are closely related, the chances of sharing the results go more than realistic. For case, agronomically important QTLs in barley tin be identified in other crop species even if the locus is not identified.

Barley has been widely used for cytogenetic research as it is a diploid organism with large chromosomes. Nonetheless, the larger genome size makes molecular studies more problematic. There are some genome sequencing research programmes in model species such as rice or Arabidopsis, but because of the larger genome size, at that place is no ongoing project for genome sequencing in barley. One approach would exist to use cDNA assay or to perform a sequencing analysis for gene-rich regions. Genome sequencing programmes are not able to include many genotypes due to loftier costs and time. Studies of a single genotype are sufficient for gene identification and for estimation of the genomic constitution. Subsequently these initial sequencing programmes, studies of polymorphism or variety within species will be the next target.

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Implications of the Investigative Animal Model

T. Komang Ralebitso-Senior , Michael K.P. Pyle , in Forensic Ecogenomics, 2018

What'due south in a Proper noun? Domestication of Suids/Swine (Sus domesticus Erxleben) and Cattle (Bos taurus Linnaeus)

The domestication of species as livestock is a process that has led to changes in both phenotypic variation, influenced by the desirability of phenotypes per human needs, and geographic distribution, influenced by human being dispersal patterns ( Krause-Kyora et al., 2013; Ottoni et al., 2013). The phylogenetic development of domestic species was, and is, therefore a nonlinear process, where monophyly is non always present. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and Y chromosomal haplotype analyses accept demonstrated that the virtually commonly used homo taphonomic proxies, Sus spp (Larson et al., 2005; Ramírez et al., 2009), Bos spp. (Achilli et al., 2009; Loftus et al., 1994), and Ovis spp (Guo et al., 2005; Hiendleder et al., 1998, 2002; Meadows et al., 2006), derive from two or more ancestral, wild species, and/or subspecies lineages.

Genetic analyses as well indicated hybridization and introgression within and between the transitional subspecies progenitors of mod domesticates and wild species during conservation, population management, and selective breeding (Vilà et al., 2005). For example, modern breeds of domesticated suids/swine (Southward. scrofa domesticus Erxleben), which are native to Europe and Due north America, are a hybrid of the species South. scrofa (Linnaeus), the Eurasian wild boar, the subspecies Sus scrofa scrofa (Linnaeus), the central European boar, and earlier transitional forms of S. scrofa domesticus (Giuffra et al., 2000; Larson et al., 2005; Scandura et al., 2011; Frantz et al., 2012, 2013). In contrast, the independently domesticated Asian clade of Suidae are usually considered descendants of Sus scrofa vittatus (Boie), the banded pig at present constitute native but to Indonesia and the Thai-Malay Peninsula of South E Asia (Giuffra et al., 2000; Larson et al., 2005). Several dissimilar subspecies of progenitorial wild boar (Due south. scrofa) are, however, recognized as contributing to the multiphyletic nature of diverse worldwide breeds, races, and strains of domestic hog. This includes: Sus scrofa meridionalis (Forsyth Major), the Mediterranean boar; Sus scrofa algira (Loche), the Due north African boar; Pig attila (Thomas), the Carpathian boar; and the Indian boar, Sus scrofa cristatus (Wagner) (Larson et al., 2005; Mayer, 1998).

Similarly, it is hypothesized that human migration-led cattle dispersal, predomestication option pressures, and the independent domestication of two unlike subspecies of Auroch (Bos primigenius Bojanus) gave rising to the two phenotypically unlike subspecies of domestic bovine cattle, Bos taurus taurus (Linnaeus) and Bos taurus indicus (Linnaeus), also known equally Bos primigenius taurus and Bos primigenius indicus, respectively (Ajmone-Marsan et al., 2010; Bradley et al., 1998; Xu et al., 2015). Eurafrican and Indian domesticates take taurine mtDNA lineage originating in the Fertile Crescent and indicine originating in the Indus Valley, respectively (Ajmone-Marsan et al., 2010). Bear witness of hybridization betwixt B. primigenius bulls and cows with both B. taurus subspecies, along with betwixt the subspecies, leading to indicine introgression into B. taurus taurus, was suggested by molecular analysis of the Y chromosome (Beja-Pereira et al., 2006; Bollongino et al., 2006; Bradley et al., 1998; Freeman et al., 2006; Götherström et al., 2005). Furthermore, molecular evidence suggests selective interspecific hybridization and interbreeding of B. taurus taurus and B. taurus indicus with the gaur or Indian bison (Bos gaurus Smith), the domestic (Bos grunniens Linnaeus), and wild (Bos mutus Przewalski) yak, and several other progenitors capable of producing fertile offspring. This also includes hybridization of B.   taurus taurus with Bison spp., water buffalo of the genus Bubalus, and the African or Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman).

The dissimilar, polyphyletic, domesticate subspecies, including domesticated suids and cattle as described earlier, practise non fall into the recognized and consistent system of binomial Linnaean taxonomy. Every bit a consequence, nomenclatural treatment is often inconsistent, both betwixt authors and within publications past the same author. For case, domestic pigs are commonly interchangeably and indiscriminately referred to binomially as both the genus and species, Due south. scrofa (Linnaeus); genus and subspecies, Sus domestica (Erxleben); or trinomially equally genus, species, and subspecies, South. scrofa domesticus (Erxleben). The method proposed past Gautier (1993) is to proper noun modern domesticates as subspecies of their wild progenitors. Nonetheless, at that place is a level of subjectivity with regard to the justified usage of taxonomic classification—where levels of the taxonomic hierarchy are described and named, and can be afterwards moved, expanded upon, or removed past dissimilar interpretations.

As domesticated species and their progenitors are recognizably unlike entities, it is appropriate for our purposes to nomenclaturally split up them. A focus on detail, and the correct utilize of the nomenclature of domestic species commonly used in forensic ecogenomics, allowing for comparability, consistency, and repeatability amongst and between studies, is therefore recommended to business relationship for potential variation caused past inter- and intra-specificity and subspecificity. It seems reasonable therefore to suggest that forensic ecogenomic studies adapt and utilize a consistent, established, internationally recognized, Linnaean Latin binomenclatural approach to the description of taphonomic proxies in publications—avoiding the sole apply of vernacular where possible. This approach should differentiate (sensu amplo; Odening, 1979) between the wild progenitors of mod domesticates, for example, avoiding the misstated apply of S. scrofa when referring to domestic pigs, and business relationship for nomenclatural homonymy, e.g., the utilise of Bos indicus when referring to domestic indicine as opposed to taurine cattle, B. taurus. Information technology is suggested further that supplementary information regarding the breeds, stocks, and strains of multiphyletic domesticates, such as Southward. domesticus, is also recorded.

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